Other reports of the bullies showed that they involved in most of the bullying behaviors at least once in a month, although their frequencies were relatively low e.
Gender and Grade Level Differences Involved vs. Furthermore, two contingency table analyses were conducted to evaluate gender and grade differences among the groups.
Statistically significant results were found for the involved vs. Male students No value violating the normality assumption was observed. Therefore, homogeneity of variance assumption was met. Bullying and submissive behavior Lastly, since the scores of the dependent variable in the study were continuous, the interval measure level assumption was met as well.
A 2 gender: female vs. Means and standard deviations for mean scores of submissive behavior in terms of gender and bully categories were presented in Table 1. Table 1. Table 2.
This difference indicated that victims reported more submissive behaviors than those of bullies. Initially, the findings regarding prevalence of bullying and victimization indicated that at least one third of the students Among these involved students, victims had a higher proportion This finding should be examined in light of the findings by Kert, Codding, Tryon, and Shiyko , which indicated that self-report measures including word of bully in the items and definitions underestimated bullying behaviors.
The prevalence of bullying and victimization could be higher than was reported, which is an important consideration while dealing with bullying. When gender and grade level differences were investigated in relation to bullying, only meaningful gender differences were found among the groups involved vs.
Male students had a larger percentage in involving bullying confirming the previous findings that bullying and victimization both were more prevalent among males than females Nansel et al. The results of the current study regarding submissive behavior were also consistent with the previous research findings. It was found that victims demonstrated more submissive behaviors than bullies.
The lower submissive scores for bullies was an expected result, because bullies were more aggressive, social, and popular than other students Perren, Our findings could provide some implications for school counselors. For example, teaching coping skills and anger management to aggressive victims and disproving social information processing biases of bullies might work much better. However, while counseling with submissive victims, designing an intervention strategy focused on assertiveness training and self-esteem building could help them.
Prevalence of bullying and victimization in the present sample were an indication of its seriousness. Therefore, besides individual intervention with victims or bullies, holistic school prevention strategies would be better.
The other members of school community, such as teachers, parents, school personnel, and students at risk or not, should be involved in the intervention program. Educators could also benefit from the findings of this study. Bullying is a threat to school climate and could easily harm the feeling of belonging to a community. Also, feeling of belonging or relatedness including secure connection with others, feelings of worthy, and respect was a crucial psychological need in human development.
They should take the role for creating positive, safe, and supportive school climate. Concerning our results, students demonstrating submissive behaviors will need much support from their close environment, especially from their teachers.
In this respect, designing class activities enhancing group cohesion and self-esteem could be a tool in creation of safer school climate. There were certain limitations of the present study. Firstly, generalizability of the results was limited to this sample and these schools. Also, findings of the study were limited to data collected from self-reported questionnaires. Moreover, the present study focused on only submissive behaviors of students involved in bullying.
However, the focus could be widened and the other constructs of social behavior e. Your perfect right: A guide to assertive behavior. San Luis Obispo, California: Impact. Alikasifoglu, M. Kaymak, D. Violent behaviour among Turkish high school students and correlates of physical fighting. European Journal of Public Health, 14 2 , Atik, G. The role of locus of control, self-esteem, parenting style, loneliness, and academic achievement in predicting bullying among middle school students school students Unpublished master's thesis.
Middle East Technical University, Ankara. Assessment of school bullying in Turkey: A critical review of self-report instruments. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, Baldry, A. Bullies and delinquents: Personal characteristics and parental styles.
Bosworth, K. Factors associated with bullying behavior in middle school students. Journal of Early Adolescence, 19 3 , Branson, C. A comparison of self and peer reports in the assessment of middle school bullying. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 25, Bullying and submissive behavior Buss, D.
Acts, dispositions and clinical assessment: The psychopathology of everyday conduct. Clinical Psychology Review, 6, Chan, J. Where is the imbalance? Journal of School Violence, 8 2 , Crick, N. Relational aggression, gender, and social psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, Anadolu Psikiyatri Dergisi, 10, Marmara University, Istanbul.
Due, P. Bullying victimization among 13 to year-old school children: Results from two comparative studies in 66 countries and regions. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 20 2 , Fleming, L. Bullying among middle-school students in low and middle income countries. Health Promotion International, 25 1 , Gilbert, P. Assertiveness, submissive behavior and social comparison. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, Involuntary sub-ordination or dependency as key dimensions of depressive vulnerability.
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51, Green, S. Haynie, D. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21 1 , Bullying prevalence among elementary students. Journal of Education, 35, Kepenekci, Y. Bullying among Turkish high school students.
Kert, A. Impact of the word bully on the reported rate of bullying behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 47 2 , Kristensen, S. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 44 5 , Konishi, C. Do school bullying and student—teacher relationships matter for academic achievement? A multilevel analysis. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 25 1 , Kovacs, M.
Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, Kowalski, R. Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41 6 , Mynard, H. Peer-victimisation and posttraumatic stress in adolescents.
Personality and Individual Differences, 29, Nansel, T. Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. JAMA, 16 , Olweus, D. Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Materials and Procedure A person perception paradigm was used in this study. Two question- naires were created using items from the DAR and SAR, one in which the target was a man and another in which the target was a woman. Because of space constraints, each questionnaire contained 28 randomly selected items from the DAR and 28 randomly selected items from the SAR.
After reading each item, participants were asked to make two ratings: 1 how de- sirable it is for typical men or women to act that way; and 2 how frequently do typical men or women act that way. Desirability ratings were made on a 4-point scale, from not at all desirable to very desirable. Frequency rat- ings also were made on a 4-point scale, from never to often. Average desir- ability and frequency ratings were computed separately for the dominance and submissiveness items. All participants completed their questionnaire alone or in small groups.
The students received credit towards subject pool participation. Dominant and Submissive Acts Results To help determine the extent to which dominant and submissive acts reflect gender stereotypic behaviors, two sets of analyses were computed. First, the perceived desirability of dominant and submissive acts was deter- mined; both sets of behaviors should be seen as equally desirable for men and women to possess.
Second, the frequency with which men and women were perceived to act in dominant and submissive ways was assessed. If dominance is considered to be male-typed, then men should be perceived to be more likely than women to act in dominant ways; if submissiveness is considered to be female-typed, then women should be perceived to be more likely than men to act in submissive ways.
Nonstudent Sample ANOVAs, one in which the perceived desirability rating for dominant acts was the dependent variable and the other in which the perceived desirability of the submissive acts was the DV. These tests revealed that those in the student sample felt that it was more desirable for the male target to act submissively 3. Nonstudent Sample ANOVAs, one in which the perceived frequency of dominant acts was the dependent variable and the other in which the perceived frequency of submissive acts was the DV.
In this case, typical women were perceived to act in submissive ways more frequently than typical men 5. General Discussion These two studies were devised to ascertain whether dominant and sub- missive acts could be considered gender-related behaviors.
Contemporary gender role theory emphasizes that, for this to be so, three assumptions would have to be met: 1 self-reports of dominant and submissive acts should be bidimensional not bipolar; 2 both dominant and submissive acts should be perceived to be equally desirable for men and women; and 3 dominant acts should be perceived to be more stereotypic of men whereas submissive acts should be seen as more stereotypic of women.
Each of these three assump- tions was supported in the research we reported here. In Study 1, self-reports of dominance and submissiveness were orthogonal for both men and women. In Study 2, perceptions of dominance and submissiveness in typical men and women were shown to be equally desirable for the two sexes and dominant acts were perceived to be more stereotypic of men whereas submissive acts were perceived to be more stereotypic of women.
Future research must now develop practical measures of dominant and submissive gender-typed behaviors. The DAR and SAR, in their current format, are too long to use as research tools, and because we selected our 28 items for Study 2 randomly, the items we used should not be construed as a psychometrically reliable scale.
Once this is done, the dimensionality, stereotypicality, and desirability of the selected items will have to be determined as part of the construct validation process.
Another important aspect of validating any shorter version of the DAR and SAR would require assessing its convergent and discriminant validity. Convergent validity could be determined in a number of ways.
In a previous study, Buss also demonstrated significant relationships among dominant and submissive acts and the unmitigatedly agentic and communal subscales of the EPAQ. SDO is a psychological predisposition whereby indi- viduals high in this construct attempt to establish and maintain hierarchical group relationships and anti-egalitarianism while developing social attitudes and social roles that support their predisposition. Men typically score higher than women in SDO. As such, the relationship between dominant acts and SDO, especially, should be determined.
However, researchers also should explore the individual differences that different types of participants may bring to the study of dominant and submissive acts. For example, in Study 2, the student participants were more likely to believe that submissiveness was more desirable in men than in women although statistically significant, the effect size was exceedingly small. Why did this finding emerge? Is it an example of one of the many dif- ferences between students and nonstudents of similar ages e.
Future research needs to explore issues such as these to make sure that the ratings of desirability and stereotypicality are similar across groups. In summary, two studies revealed that dominant and submissive acts were shown to be bidimensional, equally desirable for men and women, and gender stereotypic. As such, they meet the criteria established by Spence et al. This research paves the way for the development of shorter, more manageable versions of the DAR and SAR so that researchers can explore the relationships between these types of behaviors and a wide range of physical and psychological outcome variables.
The duality of human existence. Chicago: Rand McNally. Bem, S. The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, — Buss, D. Sex differences in the evaluation and performance of dominant acts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, — Unmitigated agency and unmitigated communion: An analysis of the neg- ative components of masculinity and femininity.
Sex Roles, 22, — The frequency concept of disposition: Dominance and prototypically dominant acts. Journal of Personality, 48, — The act frequency analysis of interpersonal dispositions: Aloofness, gregariousness, dominance and submissiveness. Journal of Personality, 49, — Masculinity-femininity: An exception to a famous dictum?
Psycho- logical Bulletin, 80, — Heilbrun, A. Measurement of masculine and feminine sex role identities as indepen- dent dimensions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 44, — Helmreich, R. A psychometric analysis of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Sex Roles, 7, — Korabik, K. Testing a model of socially desirable and undesirable gender-role attributes. Sex Roles, 43, — McCreary, D. Multidimensionality and the measurement of gender role attributes: A comment on Archer.
British Journal of Social Psychology, 29, — Examining the relationships between the so- cially desirable and undesirable aspects of agency and communion. Sex Roles, 31, — Dimensions of the male gender role: A confirmatory analysis in men and women. Sex Roles, 39, 81— Orlofsky, J. Relationship between sex role attitudes and personality traits and the Sex Role Behavior Scale A new measure of masculine and feminine role behaviors and interests. Development of a short-form Sex Role Behavior Scale.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 51, — Pleck, J. Masculinity ideology and its correlates. Costanzo Eds. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Sears, D. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, — Sidanius, J. Ranking and linking as a function of sex and gender role attitudes. Journal of Social Issues, 47 3 , —
0コメント